feat: 优化 MSD 功能体验和控件样式

libs/ventoy-img-rs/src/exfat/format.rs

@@ -97,14 +97,14 @@ impl ExfatBootSector {
         let heap_sectors = volume_length as u32 - cluster_heap_offset;
         let cluster_count = heap_sectors / sectors_per_cluster;
 
-        // Calculate root directory cluster based on upcase table size
+        // Calculate root directory cluster based on bitmap and upcase table size.
-        // Cluster 2: Bitmap (1 cluster)
-        // Cluster 3...: Upcase table (128KB, may span multiple clusters)
-        // Next available: Root directory
         const UPCASE_TABLE_SIZE: u64 = 128 * 1024;
+        let bitmap_size = ((cluster_count + 7) / 8) as u64;
+        let bitmap_clusters =
+            ((bitmap_size + cluster_size as u64 - 1) / cluster_size as u64).max(1) as u32;
         let upcase_clusters =
             ((UPCASE_TABLE_SIZE + cluster_size as u64 - 1) / cluster_size as u64) as u32;
-        let first_cluster_of_root = 3 + upcase_clusters;
+        let first_cluster_of_root = 2 + bitmap_clusters + upcase_clusters;
 
         Self {
             jump_boot: [0xEB, 0x76, 0x90],
@@ -211,6 +211,15 @@ const ENTRY_TYPE_VOLUME_LABEL: u8 = 0x83;
 const ENTRY_TYPE_BITMAP: u8 = 0x81;
 const ENTRY_TYPE_UPCASE: u8 = 0x82;
 
+fn set_cluster_allocated(bitmap: &mut [u8], cluster: u32) {
+    let index = (cluster - 2) as usize;
+    let byte_idx = index / 8;
+    let bit_idx = index % 8;
+    if byte_idx < bitmap.len() {
+        bitmap[byte_idx] |= 1 << bit_idx;
+    }
+}
+
 /// Create volume label directory entry
 fn create_volume_label_entry(label: &str) -> [u8; 32] {
     let mut entry = [0u8; 32];
@@ -301,27 +310,42 @@ pub fn format_exfat<W: Write + Seek>(
     let fat_offset = partition_offset + boot_sector.fat_offset as u64 * 512;
     writer.seek(SeekFrom::Start(fat_offset))?;
 
+    let bitmap_size = (boot_sector.cluster_count + 7) / 8;
+    let bitmap_clusters =
+        ((bitmap_size as u64 + cluster_size as u64 - 1) / cluster_size as u64).max(1) as u32;
+
     // Calculate how many clusters the upcase table needs (128KB)
     const UPCASE_TABLE_SIZE: u64 = 128 * 1024;
     let upcase_clusters =
         ((UPCASE_TABLE_SIZE + cluster_size as u64 - 1) / cluster_size as u64) as u32;
-    let root_cluster = 3 + upcase_clusters; // Root comes after bitmap and upcase
+    let bitmap_start_cluster = 2;
+    let upcase_start_cluster = bitmap_start_cluster + bitmap_clusters;
+    let root_cluster = upcase_start_cluster + upcase_clusters;
 
     // FAT entries: cluster 0 and 1 are reserved
     // 0: Media type (0xFFFFFFF8)
     // 1: Reserved (0xFFFFFFFF)
-    // 2: Bitmap cluster (single cluster, end of chain)
+    // 2..2+bitmap_clusters-1: Bitmap cluster chain
-    // 3..3+upcase_clusters-1: Upcase table cluster chain
+    // upcase_start_cluster..upcase_start_cluster+upcase_clusters-1: Upcase table cluster chain
-    // 3+upcase_clusters: Root directory cluster (end of chain)
+    // root_cluster: Root directory cluster (end of chain)
     let mut fat_entries = vec![
         0xFFFFFFF8, // Media type
         0xFFFFFFFF, // Reserved
-        0xFFFFFFFF, // Bitmap (single cluster, end of chain)
     ];
 
+    // Build allocation bitmap cluster chain
+    for i in 0..bitmap_clusters {
+        let cluster_num = bitmap_start_cluster + i;
+        if i == bitmap_clusters - 1 {
+            fat_entries.push(0xFFFFFFFF);
+        } else {
+            fat_entries.push(cluster_num + 1);
+        }
+    }
+
     // Build upcase table cluster chain
     for i in 0..upcase_clusters {
-        let cluster_num = 3 + i;
+        let cluster_num = upcase_start_cluster + i;
         if i == upcase_clusters - 1 {
             // Last cluster in chain
             fat_entries.push(0xFFFFFFFF);
@@ -345,38 +369,26 @@ pub fn format_exfat<W: Write + Seek>(
     // Calculate cluster heap offset
     let heap_offset = partition_offset + boot_sector.cluster_heap_offset as u64 * 512;
 
-    // Cluster 2: Allocation Bitmap
+    // Allocation Bitmap
-    let bitmap_size = (boot_sector.cluster_count + 7) / 8;
+    let mut bitmap = vec![0u8; bitmap_clusters as usize * cluster_size as usize];
-    let _bitmap_clusters =
-        ((bitmap_size as u64 + cluster_size as u64 - 1) / cluster_size as u64).max(1);
-    let mut bitmap = vec![0u8; cluster_size as usize];
 
-    // Mark clusters 2, 3..3+upcase_clusters-1, root_cluster as used
+    // Mark bitmap, upcase, and root directory clusters as used.
-    // Cluster 2: bitmap
+    // exFAT allocation bitmap bit 0 describes cluster 2.
-    bitmap[0] |= 0b00000100; // Bit 2
+    for i in 0..bitmap_clusters {
-                             // Clusters 3..3+upcase_clusters-1: upcase table
+        set_cluster_allocated(&mut bitmap, bitmap_start_cluster + i);
+    }
     for i in 0..upcase_clusters {
-        let cluster = 3 + i;
+        set_cluster_allocated(&mut bitmap, upcase_start_cluster + i);
-        let byte_idx = (cluster / 8) as usize;
-        let bit_idx = cluster % 8;
-        if byte_idx < bitmap.len() {
-            bitmap[byte_idx] |= 1 << bit_idx;
-        }
-    }
-    // Root directory cluster
-    let byte_idx = (root_cluster / 8) as usize;
-    let bit_idx = root_cluster % 8;
-    if byte_idx < bitmap.len() {
-        bitmap[byte_idx] |= 1 << bit_idx;
     }
+    set_cluster_allocated(&mut bitmap, root_cluster);
 
     writer.seek(SeekFrom::Start(heap_offset))?;
     writer.write_all(&bitmap)?;
 
-    // Cluster 3..3+upcase_clusters-1: Upcase table
+    // Upcase table
     let upcase_data = generate_upcase_table();
     let upcase_checksum = calculate_upcase_checksum(&upcase_data);
-    let upcase_offset = heap_offset + cluster_size as u64; // Start at cluster 3
+    let upcase_offset = heap_offset + bitmap_clusters as u64 * cluster_size as u64;
     writer.seek(SeekFrom::Start(upcase_offset))?;
     writer.write_all(&upcase_data)?;
 
@@ -388,13 +400,18 @@ pub fn format_exfat<W: Write + Seek>(
     }
 
     // Root directory cluster
-    let root_offset = heap_offset + (1 + upcase_clusters as u64) * cluster_size as u64;
+    let root_offset =
+        heap_offset + (bitmap_clusters as u64 + upcase_clusters as u64) * cluster_size as u64;
     writer.seek(SeekFrom::Start(root_offset))?;
 
     // Write directory entries
     let volume_label_entry = create_volume_label_entry(label);
-    let bitmap_entry = create_bitmap_entry(2, bitmap_size as u64);
+    let bitmap_entry = create_bitmap_entry(bitmap_start_cluster, bitmap_size as u64);
-    let upcase_entry = create_upcase_entry(3, upcase_data.len() as u64, upcase_checksum);
+    let upcase_entry = create_upcase_entry(
+        upcase_start_cluster,
+        upcase_data.len() as u64,
+        upcase_checksum,
+    );
 
     writer.write_all(&volume_label_entry)?;
     writer.write_all(&bitmap_entry)?;
@@ -413,6 +430,9 @@ pub fn format_exfat<W: Write + Seek>(
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
+    use crate::partition::PartitionLayout;
+    use std::io::Read;
+    use tempfile::NamedTempFile;
 
     #[test]
     fn test_cluster_size() {
@@ -428,4 +448,120 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(get_cluster_size(8 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024 / 512), 131072); // 8GB → 128KB
         assert_eq!(get_cluster_size(16 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024 / 512), 131072); // 16GB → 128KB
     }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_format_bitmap_uses_cluster_heap_bit_indices() {
+        let temp_file = NamedTempFile::new().unwrap();
+        let path = temp_file.path();
+        let size = 64 * 1024 * 1024u64;
+        let layout = PartitionLayout::calculate(size).unwrap();
+
+        let mut file = std::fs::OpenOptions::new()
+            .read(true)
+            .write(true)
+            .open(path)
+            .unwrap();
+        file.set_len(size).unwrap();
+        format_exfat(&mut file, layout.data_offset(), layout.data_size(), "TEST").unwrap();
+
+        let mut boot_sector = [0u8; 512];
+        file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(layout.data_offset())).unwrap();
+        file.read_exact(&mut boot_sector).unwrap();
+        let cluster_heap_offset = u32::from_le_bytes(boot_sector[88..92].try_into().unwrap());
+        let first_cluster_of_root = u32::from_le_bytes(boot_sector[96..100].try_into().unwrap());
+        let sectors_per_cluster = 1u64 << boot_sector[109];
+        let cluster_size = sectors_per_cluster * 512;
+
+        let bitmap_offset = layout.data_offset() + cluster_heap_offset as u64 * 512;
+        let mut bitmap = vec![0u8; cluster_size as usize];
+        file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(bitmap_offset)).unwrap();
+        file.read_exact(&mut bitmap).unwrap();
+
+        let is_allocated = |cluster: u32| {
+            let index = (cluster - 2) as usize;
+            (bitmap[index / 8] & (1 << (index % 8))) != 0
+        };
+
+        assert!(
+            is_allocated(2),
+            "allocation bitmap cluster must be allocated"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            is_allocated(3),
+            "upcase table first cluster must be allocated"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            is_allocated(first_cluster_of_root),
+            "root directory cluster must be allocated"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !is_allocated(first_cluster_of_root + 1),
+            "first data cluster after root should be free after formatting"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_format_supports_multi_cluster_allocation_bitmap() {
+        let temp_file = NamedTempFile::new().unwrap();
+        let path = temp_file.path();
+        let size = 240 * 1024 * 1024u64;
+        let layout = PartitionLayout::calculate(size).unwrap();
+
+        let mut file = std::fs::OpenOptions::new()
+            .read(true)
+            .write(true)
+            .open(path)
+            .unwrap();
+        file.set_len(size).unwrap();
+        format_exfat(&mut file, layout.data_offset(), layout.data_size(), "TEST").unwrap();
+
+        let mut boot_sector = [0u8; 512];
+        file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(layout.data_offset())).unwrap();
+        file.read_exact(&mut boot_sector).unwrap();
+        let fat_offset = u32::from_le_bytes(boot_sector[80..84].try_into().unwrap());
+        let cluster_heap_offset = u32::from_le_bytes(boot_sector[88..92].try_into().unwrap());
+        let cluster_count = u32::from_le_bytes(boot_sector[92..96].try_into().unwrap());
+        let first_cluster_of_root = u32::from_le_bytes(boot_sector[96..100].try_into().unwrap());
+        let sectors_per_cluster = 1u64 << boot_sector[109];
+        let cluster_size = sectors_per_cluster * 512;
+
+        let bitmap_size = ((cluster_count + 7) / 8) as u64;
+        let bitmap_clusters = bitmap_size.div_ceil(cluster_size) as u32;
+        assert!(
+            bitmap_clusters > 1,
+            "test volume should require a multi-cluster allocation bitmap"
+        );
+
+        let upcase_clusters = (128 * 1024u64).div_ceil(cluster_size) as u32;
+        assert_eq!(first_cluster_of_root, 2 + bitmap_clusters + upcase_clusters);
+
+        let read_fat = |file: &mut std::fs::File, cluster: u32| -> u32 {
+            let offset = layout.data_offset() + fat_offset as u64 * 512 + cluster as u64 * 4;
+            let mut bytes = [0u8; 4];
+            file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(offset)).unwrap();
+            file.read_exact(&mut bytes).unwrap();
+            u32::from_le_bytes(bytes)
+        };
+        assert_eq!(read_fat(&mut file, 2), 3);
+        assert_eq!(read_fat(&mut file, 2 + bitmap_clusters - 1), 0xFFFFFFFF);
+
+        let root_offset = layout.data_offset()
+            + cluster_heap_offset as u64 * 512
+            + (first_cluster_of_root - 2) as u64 * cluster_size;
+        let mut root = vec![0u8; cluster_size as usize];
+        file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(root_offset)).unwrap();
+        file.read_exact(&mut root).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(root[32], ENTRY_TYPE_BITMAP);
+        assert_eq!(u32::from_le_bytes(root[52..56].try_into().unwrap()), 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            u64::from_le_bytes(root[56..64].try_into().unwrap()),
+            bitmap_size
+        );
+        assert_eq!(root[64], ENTRY_TYPE_UPCASE);
+        assert_eq!(
+            u32::from_le_bytes(root[84..88].try_into().unwrap()),
+            2 + bitmap_clusters
+        );
+    }
 }

libs/ventoy-img-rs/src/exfat/ops.rs

@@ -14,9 +14,13 @@ use std::path::Path;
 /// FAT entry values
 const FAT_ENTRY_FREE: u32 = 0x00000000;
 const FAT_ENTRY_END_OF_CHAIN: u32 = 0xFFFFFFFF;
+const VOLUME_DIRTY_FLAG: u16 = 0x0002;
+const VOLUME_FLAGS_OFFSET: u64 = 106;
 
 /// Directory entry types
 const ENTRY_TYPE_END: u8 = 0x00;
+const ENTRY_TYPE_BITMAP: u8 = 0x81;
+const ENTRY_TYPE_UPCASE: u8 = 0x82;
 const ENTRY_TYPE_FILE: u8 = 0x85;
 const ENTRY_TYPE_STREAM: u8 = 0xC0;
 const ENTRY_TYPE_FILE_NAME: u8 = 0xC1;
@@ -137,6 +141,11 @@ pub struct ExfatFs {
     cluster_heap_offset: u32,
     cluster_count: u32,
     first_cluster_of_root: u32,
+    allocation_bitmap_first_cluster: u32,
+    allocation_bitmap_size: u64,
+    upcase_table_first_cluster: u32,
+    upcase_table_size: u64,
+    upcase_table_checksum: u32,
     // Performance caches
     /// FAT table segment cache
     fat_cache: FatCache,
@@ -182,7 +191,7 @@ impl ExfatFs {
         let sectors_per_cluster = 1u32 << sectors_per_cluster_shift;
         let cluster_size = bytes_per_sector * sectors_per_cluster;
 
-        Ok(Self {
+        let mut fs = Self {
             file,
             partition_offset,
             bytes_per_sector,
@@ -193,11 +202,151 @@ impl ExfatFs {
             cluster_heap_offset,
             cluster_count,
             first_cluster_of_root,
+            allocation_bitmap_first_cluster: 2,
+            allocation_bitmap_size: ((cluster_count + 7) / 8) as u64,
+            upcase_table_first_cluster: 0,
+            upcase_table_size: 0,
+            upcase_table_checksum: 0,
             // Initialize caches
             fat_cache: FatCache::new(),
             bitmap_cache: None,
             bitmap_dirty: false,
-        })
+        };
+        fs.discover_root_metadata_entries()?;
+        Ok(fs)
+    }
+
+    fn discover_root_metadata_entries(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut bitmap_found = false;
+        let mut upcase_found = false;
+        let root_clusters = self.read_cluster_chain(self.first_cluster_of_root)?;
+
+        'outer: for &cluster in &root_clusters {
+            let cluster_data = self.read_cluster(cluster)?;
+            let mut i = 0;
+
+            while i + 32 <= cluster_data.len() {
+                let entry_type = cluster_data[i];
+                match entry_type {
+                    ENTRY_TYPE_END => break 'outer,
+                    ENTRY_TYPE_BITMAP => {
+                        let first_cluster =
+                            u32::from_le_bytes(cluster_data[i + 20..i + 24].try_into().unwrap());
+                        let size =
+                            u64::from_le_bytes(cluster_data[i + 24..i + 32].try_into().unwrap());
+                        if first_cluster < 2 || size == 0 {
+                            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
+                                "Invalid exFAT allocation bitmap entry".to_string(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                        self.allocation_bitmap_first_cluster = first_cluster;
+                        self.allocation_bitmap_size = size;
+                        bitmap_found = true;
+                    }
+                    ENTRY_TYPE_UPCASE => {
+                        let checksum =
+                            u32::from_le_bytes(cluster_data[i + 4..i + 8].try_into().unwrap());
+                        let first_cluster =
+                            u32::from_le_bytes(cluster_data[i + 20..i + 24].try_into().unwrap());
+                        let size =
+                            u64::from_le_bytes(cluster_data[i + 24..i + 32].try_into().unwrap());
+                        if first_cluster < 2 || size == 0 {
+                            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
+                                "Invalid exFAT upcase table entry".to_string(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                        self.upcase_table_first_cluster = first_cluster;
+                        self.upcase_table_size = size;
+                        self.upcase_table_checksum = checksum;
+                        upcase_found = true;
+                    }
+                    ENTRY_TYPE_FILE => {
+                        let secondary_count = cluster_data[i + 1] as usize;
+                        i += (1 + secondary_count) * 32;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    _ => {}
+                }
+
+                i += 32;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if !bitmap_found {
+            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
+                "exFAT allocation bitmap entry not found".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+        if !upcase_found {
+            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
+                "exFAT upcase table entry not found".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let min_bitmap_size = ((self.cluster_count + 7) / 8) as u64;
+        if self.allocation_bitmap_size < min_bitmap_size {
+            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
+                "exFAT allocation bitmap too small: {} bytes, need at least {}",
+                self.allocation_bitmap_size, min_bitmap_size
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn volume_flags_offset(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.partition_offset + VOLUME_FLAGS_OFFSET
+    }
+
+    fn read_volume_flags(&mut self) -> Result<u16> {
+        let mut bytes = [0u8; 2];
+        self.file
+            .seek(SeekFrom::Start(self.volume_flags_offset()))?;
+        self.file.read_exact(&mut bytes)?;
+        Ok(u16::from_le_bytes(bytes))
+    }
+
+    fn is_volume_dirty(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        Ok((self.read_volume_flags()? & VOLUME_DIRTY_FLAG) != 0)
+    }
+
+    fn set_volume_dirty(&mut self, dirty: bool) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut flags = self.read_volume_flags()?;
+        if dirty {
+            flags |= VOLUME_DIRTY_FLAG;
+        } else {
+            flags &= !VOLUME_DIRTY_FLAG;
+        }
+
+        self.file
+            .seek(SeekFrom::Start(self.volume_flags_offset()))?;
+        self.file.write_all(&flags.to_le_bytes())?;
+        self.file.flush()?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn begin_write_transaction(&mut self) -> Result<bool> {
+        let was_dirty = self.is_volume_dirty()?;
+        if !was_dirty {
+            self.set_volume_dirty(true)?;
+        }
+        Ok(was_dirty)
+    }
+
+    fn finish_write_transaction<T>(&mut self, was_dirty: bool, result: Result<T>) -> Result<T> {
+        match result {
+            Ok(value) => {
+                self.file.flush()?;
+                if !was_dirty {
+                    self.set_volume_dirty(false)?;
+                }
+                Ok(value)
+            }
+            Err(err) => {
+                let _ = self.file.flush();
+                Err(err)
+            }
+        }
     }
 
     // ==================== Cluster I/O Operations ====================
@@ -328,13 +477,89 @@ impl ExfatFs {
 
     // ==================== Allocation Bitmap Operations ====================
 
+    fn read_cluster_chain_bytes(&mut self, first_cluster: u32, byte_len: u64) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+        let chain = self.read_cluster_chain(first_cluster)?;
+        if chain.is_empty() {
+            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
+                "Empty cluster chain".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let capacity = byte_len.min(chain.len() as u64 * self.cluster_size as u64) as usize;
+        let mut data = Vec::with_capacity(capacity);
+        for &cluster in &chain {
+            let cluster_data = self.read_cluster(cluster)?;
+            data.extend_from_slice(&cluster_data);
+            if data.len() >= byte_len as usize {
+                data.truncate(byte_len as usize);
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if data.len() < byte_len as usize {
+            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
+                "Cluster chain for {} is shorter than expected: {} < {} bytes",
+                first_cluster,
+                data.len(),
+                byte_len
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(data)
+    }
+
+    fn write_cluster_chain_bytes(
+        &mut self,
+        first_cluster: u32,
+        byte_len: u64,
+        data: &[u8],
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        if data.len() < byte_len as usize {
+            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
+                "Not enough data to write cluster chain: {} < {} bytes",
+                data.len(),
+                byte_len
+            )));
+        }
+
+        let chain = self.read_cluster_chain(first_cluster)?;
+        if chain.is_empty() {
+            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
+                "Empty cluster chain".to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let mut bytes_written = 0usize;
+        let bytes_to_write = byte_len as usize;
+        for &cluster in &chain {
+            let end = (bytes_written + self.cluster_size as usize).min(bytes_to_write);
+            if bytes_written >= end {
+                break;
+            }
+            self.write_cluster(cluster, &data[bytes_written..end])?;
+            bytes_written = end;
+        }
+
+        if bytes_written < bytes_to_write {
+            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
+                "Cluster chain for {} is shorter than expected: {} < {} bytes",
+                first_cluster, bytes_written, bytes_to_write
+            )));
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     /// Read the allocation bitmap (with caching)
     fn read_bitmap(&mut self) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
         if let Some(ref bitmap) = self.bitmap_cache {
             return Ok(bitmap.clone());
         }
 
-        let bitmap = self.read_cluster(2)?;
+        let bitmap = self.read_cluster_chain_bytes(
+            self.allocation_bitmap_first_cluster,
+            self.allocation_bitmap_size,
+        )?;
         self.bitmap_cache = Some(bitmap.clone());
         Ok(bitmap)
     }
@@ -342,7 +567,10 @@ impl ExfatFs {
     /// Get a mutable reference to the cached bitmap, loading if necessary
     fn get_bitmap_mut(&mut self) -> Result<&mut Vec<u8>> {
         if self.bitmap_cache.is_none() {
-            let bitmap = self.read_cluster(2)?;
+            let bitmap = self.read_cluster_chain_bytes(
+                self.allocation_bitmap_first_cluster,
+                self.allocation_bitmap_size,
+            )?;
             self.bitmap_cache = Some(bitmap);
         }
         Ok(self.bitmap_cache.as_mut().unwrap())
@@ -351,7 +579,11 @@ impl ExfatFs {
     /// Write the allocation bitmap (with cache management)
     #[allow(dead_code)]
     fn write_bitmap(&mut self, bitmap: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
-        self.write_cluster(2, bitmap)?;
+        self.write_cluster_chain_bytes(
+            self.allocation_bitmap_first_cluster,
+            self.allocation_bitmap_size,
+            bitmap,
+        )?;
         self.bitmap_cache = Some(bitmap.to_vec());
         self.bitmap_dirty = false;
         Ok(())
@@ -362,7 +594,11 @@ impl ExfatFs {
     fn flush_bitmap(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
         if self.bitmap_dirty {
             if let Some(bitmap) = self.bitmap_cache.take() {
-                self.write_cluster(2, &bitmap)?;
+                self.write_cluster_chain_bytes(
+                    self.allocation_bitmap_first_cluster,
+                    self.allocation_bitmap_size,
+                    &bitmap,
+                )?;
                 self.bitmap_cache = Some(bitmap);
                 self.bitmap_dirty = false;
             }
@@ -400,10 +636,7 @@ impl ExfatFs {
         let bitmap = self.read_bitmap()?;
         let mut free_clusters = Vec::with_capacity(count);
 
-        // Start from cluster after root directory
+        for cluster in 2..self.cluster_count + 2 {
-        // (root is at first_cluster_of_root, which varies based on cluster size)
-        let start_cluster = self.first_cluster_of_root + 1;
-        for cluster in start_cluster..self.cluster_count + 2 {
             if !Self::is_cluster_allocated(&bitmap, cluster) {
                 free_clusters.push(cluster);
                 if free_clusters.len() >= count {
@@ -482,7 +715,11 @@ impl ExfatFs {
     /// Flush bitmap to disk immediately
     fn flush_bitmap_now(&mut self) -> Result<()> {
         if let Some(bitmap) = self.bitmap_cache.take() {
-            self.write_cluster(2, &bitmap)?;
+            self.write_cluster_chain_bytes(
+                self.allocation_bitmap_first_cluster,
+                self.allocation_bitmap_size,
+                &bitmap,
+            )?;
             self.bitmap_cache = Some(bitmap);
         }
         Ok(())
@@ -823,10 +1060,12 @@ impl ExfatFs {
             // Exclude the newly added cluster
             let mut cluster_data = self.read_cluster(cluster)?;
 
-            // Scan for END markers and replace them with 0xFF (invalid entry, will be skipped)
+            // Scan for END markers and replace them with inactive entries. Leaving an
+            // END marker before later directory clusters makes hosts stop early; using
+            // an in-use invalid type can make strict hosts treat the directory as bad.
             for i in (0..cluster_data.len()).step_by(32) {
                 if cluster_data[i] == ENTRY_TYPE_END {
-                    cluster_data[i] = 0xFF; // Invalid entry type
+                    cluster_data[i] = ENTRY_TYPE_DELETED_FILE;
                 }
             }
 
@@ -905,8 +1144,16 @@ impl ExfatFs {
         let empty_cluster = vec![0u8; self.cluster_size as usize];
         self.write_cluster(dir_cluster, &empty_cluster)?;
 
-        // Create directory entry in parent
+        // exFAT directories have allocated data. A zero-length directory stream
-        self.create_entry_in_directory(parent_cluster, name, dir_cluster, 0, true)?;
+        // makes Windows treat the directory as corrupt even when the cluster
+        // chain and child entries are otherwise valid.
+        self.create_entry_in_directory(
+            parent_cluster,
+            name,
+            dir_cluster,
+            self.cluster_size as u64,
+            true,
+        )?;
 
         self.file.flush()?;
         Ok(dir_cluster)
@@ -1120,46 +1367,54 @@ impl ExfatFs {
 
     /// Write a file to the filesystem (root directory, no overwrite)
     pub fn write_file(&mut self, name: &str, data: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
-        // Validate filename
+        let was_dirty = self.begin_write_transaction()?;
-        if name.is_empty() || name.len() > 255 {
+        let result = (|| {
-            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
+            // Validate filename
-                "Invalid filename length".to_string(),
+            if name.is_empty() || name.len() > 255 {
-            ));
+                return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
-        }
+                    "Invalid filename length".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
 
-        // Check if file already exists
+            // Check if file already exists
-        if self.find_file_entry(name)?.is_some() {
+            if self.find_file_entry(name)?.is_some() {
-            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
-                "File '{}' already exists",
-                name
-            )));
-        }
-
-        self.write_file_data_and_entry(self.first_cluster_of_root, name, data)
-    }
-
-    /// Write a file to the filesystem with overwrite option
-    pub fn write_file_overwrite(&mut self, name: &str, data: &[u8], overwrite: bool) -> Result<()> {
-        // Validate filename
-        if name.is_empty() || name.len() > 255 {
-            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
-                "Invalid filename length".to_string(),
-            ));
-        }
-
-        // Check if file already exists
-        if self.find_file_entry(name)?.is_some() {
-            if overwrite {
-                self.delete_file(name)?;
-            } else {
                 return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
                     "File '{}' already exists",
                     name
                 )));
             }
-        }
 
-        self.write_file_data_and_entry(self.first_cluster_of_root, name, data)
+            self.write_file_data_and_entry(self.first_cluster_of_root, name, data)
+        })();
+        self.finish_write_transaction(was_dirty, result)
+    }
+
+    /// Write a file to the filesystem with overwrite option
+    pub fn write_file_overwrite(&mut self, name: &str, data: &[u8], overwrite: bool) -> Result<()> {
+        let was_dirty = self.begin_write_transaction()?;
+        let result = (|| {
+            // Validate filename
+            if name.is_empty() || name.len() > 255 {
+                return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
+                    "Invalid filename length".to_string(),
+                ));
+            }
+
+            // Check if file already exists
+            if self.find_file_entry(name)?.is_some() {
+                if overwrite {
+                    self.delete_file(name)?;
+                } else {
+                    return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
+                        "File '{}' already exists",
+                        name
+                    )));
+                }
+            }
+
+            self.write_file_data_and_entry(self.first_cluster_of_root, name, data)
+        })();
+        self.finish_write_transaction(was_dirty, result)
     }
 
     /// Write a file to a specific path
@@ -1174,38 +1429,42 @@ impl ExfatFs {
         create_parents: bool,
         overwrite: bool,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        let resolved = self.resolve_path(path, create_parents)?;
+        let was_dirty = self.begin_write_transaction()?;
+        let result = (|| {
+            let resolved = self.resolve_path(path, create_parents)?;
 
-        // Validate filename
+            // Validate filename
-        if resolved.name.is_empty() || resolved.name.len() > 255 {
+            if resolved.name.is_empty() || resolved.name.len() > 255 {
-            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
+                return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(
-                "Invalid filename length".to_string(),
+                    "Invalid filename length".to_string(),
-            ));
+                ));
-        }
-
-        // Handle existing file
-        if let Some(location) = resolved.location {
-            if location.is_directory {
-                return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
-                    "'{}' is a directory",
-                    path
-                )));
             }
-            if overwrite {
+
-                // Delete existing file
+            // Handle existing file
-                if location.first_cluster >= 2 {
+            if let Some(location) = resolved.location {
-                    self.free_cluster_chain(location.first_cluster)?;
+                if location.is_directory {
+                    return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
+                        "'{}' is a directory",
+                        path
+                    )));
+                }
+                if overwrite {
+                    // Delete existing file
+                    if location.first_cluster >= 2 {
+                        self.free_cluster_chain(location.first_cluster)?;
+                    }
+                    self.delete_file_entry(&location)?;
+                } else {
+                    return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
+                        "File '{}' already exists",
+                        path
+                    )));
                 }
-                self.delete_file_entry(&location)?;
-            } else {
-                return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
-                    "File '{}' already exists",
-                    path
-                )));
             }
-        }
 
-        self.write_file_data_and_entry(resolved.parent_cluster, &resolved.name, data)
+            self.write_file_data_and_entry(resolved.parent_cluster, &resolved.name, data)
+        })();
+        self.finish_write_transaction(was_dirty, result)
     }
 
     /// Read file data from a location
@@ -1276,99 +1535,115 @@ impl ExfatFs {
 
     /// Delete a file from the filesystem (root directory)
     pub fn delete_file(&mut self, name: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        let location = self
+        let was_dirty = self.begin_write_transaction()?;
-            .find_file_entry(name)?
+        let result = (|| {
-            .ok_or_else(|| VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!("File '{}' not found", name)))?;
+            let location = self.find_file_entry(name)?.ok_or_else(|| {
+                VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!("File '{}' not found", name))
+            })?;
 
-        // Free cluster chain
+            // Free cluster chain
-        if location.first_cluster >= 2 {
+            if location.first_cluster >= 2 {
-            self.free_cluster_chain(location.first_cluster)?;
+                self.free_cluster_chain(location.first_cluster)?;
-        }
+            }
 
-        // Delete directory entry
+            // Delete directory entry
-        self.delete_file_entry(&location)?;
+            self.delete_file_entry(&location)?;
 
-        self.file.flush()?;
+            self.file.flush()?;
-        Ok(())
+            Ok(())
+        })();
+        self.finish_write_transaction(was_dirty, result)
     }
 
     /// Delete a file or directory at a specific path
     pub fn delete_path(&mut self, path: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        let resolved = self.resolve_path(path, false)?;
+        let was_dirty = self.begin_write_transaction()?;
+        let result = (|| {
+            let resolved = self.resolve_path(path, false)?;
 
-        let location = resolved
+            let location = resolved
-            .location
+                .location
-            .ok_or_else(|| VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!("'{}' not found", path)))?;
+                .ok_or_else(|| VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!("'{}' not found", path)))?;
 
-        // If it's a directory, check if it's empty
+            // If it's a directory, check if it's empty
-        if location.is_directory {
+            if location.is_directory {
-            let contents = self.list_files_in_directory(location.first_cluster, "")?;
+                let contents = self.list_files_in_directory(location.first_cluster, "")?;
-            if !contents.is_empty() {
+                if !contents.is_empty() {
-                return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
+                    return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
-                    "Directory '{}' is not empty",
+                        "Directory '{}' is not empty",
-                    path
+                        path
-                )));
+                    )));
+                }
             }
-        }
 
-        // Free cluster chain
+            // Free cluster chain
-        if location.first_cluster >= 2 {
+            if location.first_cluster >= 2 {
-            self.free_cluster_chain(location.first_cluster)?;
+                self.free_cluster_chain(location.first_cluster)?;
-        }
+            }
 
-        // Delete directory entry
+            // Delete directory entry
-        self.delete_file_entry(&location)?;
+            self.delete_file_entry(&location)?;
 
-        self.file.flush()?;
+            self.file.flush()?;
-        Ok(())
+            Ok(())
+        })();
+        self.finish_write_transaction(was_dirty, result)
     }
 
     /// Delete a directory and all its contents recursively
     pub fn delete_recursive(&mut self, path: &str) -> Result<()> {
-        let resolved = self.resolve_path(path, false)?;
+        let was_dirty = self.begin_write_transaction()?;
+        let result = (|| {
+            let resolved = self.resolve_path(path, false)?;
 
-        let location = resolved
+            let location = resolved
-            .location
+                .location
-            .ok_or_else(|| VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!("'{}' not found", path)))?;
+                .ok_or_else(|| VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!("'{}' not found", path)))?;
 
-        if location.is_directory {
+            if location.is_directory {
-            // Get all contents and delete them first
+                // Get all contents and delete them first
-            let contents = self.list_files_in_directory(location.first_cluster, "")?;
+                let contents = self.list_files_in_directory(location.first_cluster, "")?;
-            for item in contents {
+                for item in contents {
-                let item_path = if path.ends_with('/') {
+                    let item_path = if path.ends_with('/') {
-                    format!("{}{}", path, item.name)
+                        format!("{}{}", path, item.name)
-                } else {
+                    } else {
-                    format!("{}/{}", path, item.name)
+                        format!("{}/{}", path, item.name)
-                };
+                    };
-                self.delete_recursive(&item_path)?;
+                    self.delete_recursive(&item_path)?;
+                }
             }
-        }
 
-        // Now delete the item itself
+            // Now delete the item itself
-        if location.first_cluster >= 2 {
+            if location.first_cluster >= 2 {
-            self.free_cluster_chain(location.first_cluster)?;
+                self.free_cluster_chain(location.first_cluster)?;
-        }
+            }
-        self.delete_file_entry(&location)?;
+            self.delete_file_entry(&location)?;
 
-        self.file.flush()?;
+            self.file.flush()?;
-        Ok(())
+            Ok(())
+        })();
+        self.finish_write_transaction(was_dirty, result)
     }
 
     /// Create a directory at a specific path
     ///
     /// If create_parents is true, creates all intermediate directories (mkdir -p behavior)
     pub fn create_directory(&mut self, path: &str, create_parents: bool) -> Result<()> {
-        let resolved = self.resolve_path(path, create_parents)?;
+        let was_dirty = self.begin_write_transaction()?;
+        let result = (|| {
+            let resolved = self.resolve_path(path, create_parents)?;
 
-        if resolved.location.is_some() {
+            if resolved.location.is_some() {
-            return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
+                return Err(VentoyError::FilesystemError(format!(
-                "'{}' already exists",
+                    "'{}' already exists",
-                path
+                    path
-            )));
+                )));
-        }
+            }
 
-        self.create_directory_in(resolved.parent_cluster, &resolved.name)?;
+            self.create_directory_in(resolved.parent_cluster, &resolved.name)?;
-        Ok(())
+            Ok(())
+        })();
+        self.finish_write_transaction(was_dirty, result)
     }
 }
 
@@ -1805,9 +2080,13 @@ impl ExfatFs {
         reader: &mut R,
         size: u64,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut writer = ExfatFileWriter::create(self, name, size)?;
+        let was_dirty = self.begin_write_transaction()?;
-        Self::do_stream_write(&mut writer, reader)?;
+        let result = (|| {
-        writer.finish()
+            let mut writer = ExfatFileWriter::create(self, name, size)?;
+            Self::do_stream_write(&mut writer, reader)?;
+            writer.finish()
+        })();
+        self.finish_write_transaction(was_dirty, result)
     }
 
     /// Write a file from a reader with overwrite option
@@ -1818,9 +2097,13 @@ impl ExfatFs {
         size: u64,
         overwrite: bool,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut writer = ExfatFileWriter::create_overwrite(self, name, size, overwrite)?;
+        let was_dirty = self.begin_write_transaction()?;
-        Self::do_stream_write(&mut writer, reader)?;
+        let result = (|| {
-        writer.finish()
+            let mut writer = ExfatFileWriter::create_overwrite(self, name, size, overwrite)?;
+            Self::do_stream_write(&mut writer, reader)?;
+            writer.finish()
+        })();
+        self.finish_write_transaction(was_dirty, result)
     }
 
     /// Write a file from a reader to a specific path
@@ -1835,10 +2118,14 @@ impl ExfatFs {
         create_parents: bool,
         overwrite: bool,
     ) -> Result<()> {
-        let mut writer =
+        let was_dirty = self.begin_write_transaction()?;
-            ExfatFileWriter::create_at_path(self, path, size, create_parents, overwrite)?;
+        let result = (|| {
-        Self::do_stream_write(&mut writer, reader)?;
+            let mut writer =
-        writer.finish()
+                ExfatFileWriter::create_at_path(self, path, size, create_parents, overwrite)?;
+            Self::do_stream_write(&mut writer, reader)?;
+            writer.finish()
+        })();
+        self.finish_write_transaction(was_dirty, result)
     }
 
     /// Internal: Stream write from reader to writer
@@ -1861,9 +2148,18 @@ impl ExfatFs {
 mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use crate::partition::PartitionLayout;
-    use std::io::Cursor;
+    use std::io::{Cursor, Read, Seek, SeekFrom, Write};
     use tempfile::NamedTempFile;
 
+    fn cluster_offset(
+        partition_offset: u64,
+        cluster_heap_offset: u32,
+        cluster_size: u64,
+        cluster: u32,
+    ) -> u64 {
+        partition_offset + cluster_heap_offset as u64 * 512 + (cluster - 2) as u64 * cluster_size
+    }
+
     /// Test directory extension when filling up a directory cluster
     #[test]
     fn test_directory_extension() -> Result<()> {
@@ -2055,6 +2351,168 @@ mod tests {
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn test_write_transactions_clear_volume_dirty_on_success() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_file = NamedTempFile::new().unwrap();
+        let path = temp_file.path();
+        let size = 64 * 1024 * 1024u64;
+        let layout = PartitionLayout::calculate(size).unwrap();
+
+        let mut file = std::fs::OpenOptions::new()
+            .read(true)
+            .write(true)
+            .open(path)
+            .unwrap();
+        file.set_len(size).unwrap();
+        crate::exfat::format::format_exfat(
+            &mut file,
+            layout.data_offset(),
+            layout.data_size(),
+            "TEST",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        drop(file);
+
+        let mut fs = ExfatFs::open(path, &layout).unwrap();
+        assert!(!fs.is_volume_dirty()?);
+
+        let data = b"uploaded from web";
+        let mut cursor = Cursor::new(data);
+        fs.write_file_from_reader_path(
+            "/uploads/test.txt",
+            &mut cursor,
+            data.len() as u64,
+            true,
+            true,
+        )?;
+        assert!(!fs.is_volume_dirty()?);
+
+        fs.delete_recursive("/uploads")?;
+        assert!(!fs.is_volume_dirty()?);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_created_directory_has_allocated_data_length() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_file = NamedTempFile::new().unwrap();
+        let path = temp_file.path();
+        let size = 64 * 1024 * 1024u64;
+        let layout = PartitionLayout::calculate(size).unwrap();
+
+        let mut file = std::fs::OpenOptions::new()
+            .read(true)
+            .write(true)
+            .open(path)
+            .unwrap();
+        file.set_len(size).unwrap();
+        crate::exfat::format::format_exfat(
+            &mut file,
+            layout.data_offset(),
+            layout.data_size(),
+            "TEST",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        drop(file);
+
+        let mut fs = ExfatFs::open(path, &layout).unwrap();
+        fs.create_directory("/uploads", true)?;
+
+        let location = fs
+            .find_entry_in_directory(fs.first_cluster_of_root, "uploads")?
+            .expect("created directory entry should exist");
+
+        assert!(location.is_directory);
+        assert!(location.first_cluster >= 2);
+        assert_eq!(location.data_length, fs.cluster_size as u64);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_open_uses_bitmap_location_from_root_directory() -> Result<()> {
+        let temp_file = NamedTempFile::new().unwrap();
+        let path = temp_file.path();
+        let size = 64 * 1024 * 1024u64;
+        let layout = PartitionLayout::calculate(size).unwrap();
+
+        let mut file = std::fs::OpenOptions::new()
+            .read(true)
+            .write(true)
+            .open(path)
+            .unwrap();
+        file.set_len(size).unwrap();
+        crate::exfat::format::format_exfat(
+            &mut file,
+            layout.data_offset(),
+            layout.data_size(),
+            "TEST",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let mut boot_sector = [0u8; 512];
+        file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(layout.data_offset())).unwrap();
+        file.read_exact(&mut boot_sector).unwrap();
+        let fat_offset = u32::from_le_bytes(boot_sector[80..84].try_into().unwrap());
+        let cluster_heap_offset = u32::from_le_bytes(boot_sector[88..92].try_into().unwrap());
+        let first_cluster_of_root = u32::from_le_bytes(boot_sector[96..100].try_into().unwrap());
+        let cluster_size = (1u64 << boot_sector[109]) * 512;
+
+        let relocated_bitmap_cluster = first_cluster_of_root + 1;
+        let mut bitmap = vec![0u8; cluster_size as usize];
+        file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(cluster_offset(
+            layout.data_offset(),
+            cluster_heap_offset,
+            cluster_size,
+            2,
+        )))
+        .unwrap();
+        file.read_exact(&mut bitmap).unwrap();
+        let relocated_index = (relocated_bitmap_cluster - 2) as usize;
+        bitmap[relocated_index / 8] |= 1 << (relocated_index % 8);
+
+        file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(cluster_offset(
+            layout.data_offset(),
+            cluster_heap_offset,
+            cluster_size,
+            relocated_bitmap_cluster,
+        )))
+        .unwrap();
+        file.write_all(&bitmap).unwrap();
+
+        let relocated_fat_offset =
+            layout.data_offset() + fat_offset as u64 * 512 + relocated_bitmap_cluster as u64 * 4;
+        file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(relocated_fat_offset)).unwrap();
+        file.write_all(&FAT_ENTRY_END_OF_CHAIN.to_le_bytes())
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let root_offset = cluster_offset(
+            layout.data_offset(),
+            cluster_heap_offset,
+            cluster_size,
+            first_cluster_of_root,
+        );
+        file.seek(SeekFrom::Start(root_offset + 32 + 20)).unwrap();
+        file.write_all(&relocated_bitmap_cluster.to_le_bytes())
+            .unwrap();
+        file.flush().unwrap();
+        drop(file);
+
+        let mut fs = ExfatFs::open(path, &layout).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(fs.allocation_bitmap_first_cluster, relocated_bitmap_cluster);
+        assert!(ExfatFs::is_cluster_allocated(
+            &fs.read_bitmap()?,
+            relocated_bitmap_cluster
+        ));
+
+        let data = b"uses relocated bitmap";
+        let mut cursor = Cursor::new(data);
+        fs.write_file_from_reader("relocated.txt", &mut cursor, data.len() as u64)?;
+        assert_eq!(fs.read_file("relocated.txt")?, &data[..]);
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     /// Test Unicode file names (CJK, Cyrillic, emoji, etc.)
     #[test]
     fn test_unicode_filenames() -> Result<()> {

src/msd/mod.rs

@@ -11,6 +11,6 @@ pub use types::{
     DownloadProgress, DownloadStatus, DriveFile, DriveInfo, DriveInitRequest, ImageDownloadRequest,
     ImageInfo, MsdConnectRequest, MsdMode, MsdState,
 };
-pub use ventoy_drive::VentoyDrive;
+pub use ventoy_drive::{VentoyDrive, MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB};
 
 pub use crate::otg::{MsdFunction, MsdLunConfig};

src/msd/types.rs

@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ pub struct DriveInitRequest {
 }
 
 fn default_drive_size() -> u32 {
-    16 * 1024
+    64
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]

src/msd/ventoy_drive.rs

@@ -10,9 +10,7 @@ use crate::error::{AppError, Result};
 
 const STREAM_CHUNK_SIZE: usize = 64 * 1024;
 
-const MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB: u32 = 1024;
+pub const MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB: u32 = 64;
-
-const MAX_DRIVE_SIZE_MB: u32 = 128 * 1024;
 
 const DEFAULT_LABEL: &str = "ONE-KVM";
 
@@ -37,8 +35,20 @@ impl VentoyDrive {
         &self.path
     }
 
+    /// Returns just the raw file size without attempting to parse the filesystem.
+    /// Used as a fallback when the image has been reformatted to an unsupported
+    /// filesystem (e.g. NTFS/exFAT) that VentoyImage cannot open.
+    pub fn raw_size(&self) -> Option<u64> {
+        std::fs::metadata(&self.path).ok().map(|m| m.len())
+    }
+
     pub async fn init(&self, size_mb: u32) -> Result<DriveInfo> {
-        let size_mb = size_mb.clamp(MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB, MAX_DRIVE_SIZE_MB);
+        if size_mb < MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB {
+            return Err(AppError::BadRequest(format!(
+                "Drive size must be at least {} MB",
+                MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB
+            )));
+        }
         let size_str = format!("{}M", size_mb);
         let path = self.path.clone();
         let _lock = self.lock.write().await;

src/otg/msd.rs

@@ -44,7 +44,11 @@ impl MsdLunConfig {
             cdrom: false,
             ro: read_only,
             removable: true,
-            nofua: true,
+            // nofua=false: enforce Force Unit Access so the USB host (e.g. Windows)
+            // gets proper write-completion acknowledgements when writing to the
+            // virtual .img file. nofua=true can cause write-verify failures
+            // that manifest as Windows error 0x80070570 on writable drives.
+            nofua: false,
         }
     }
 }

src/web/handlers/msd_api.rs

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ use super::*;
 
 use crate::msd::{
     DownloadProgress, DriveFile, DriveInfo, DriveInitRequest, ImageDownloadRequest, ImageInfo,
-    ImageManager, MsdConnectRequest, MsdMode, MsdState, VentoyDrive,
+    ImageManager, MsdConnectRequest, MsdMode, MsdState, VentoyDrive, MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB,
 };
 #[cfg(unix)]
 use axum::body::Body;
@@ -15,6 +15,63 @@ use axum::response::Response;
 #[cfg(unix)]
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 
+#[cfg(unix)]
+const MIB: u64 = 1024 * 1024;
+
+/// Return an error if the virtual drive is currently connected to the USB host.
+/// When connected, the USB host (e.g. Windows) has the filesystem mounted.
+/// Any concurrent access from the server side (via VentoyImage::open) would
+/// cause double-access corruption, manifesting as Windows error 0x80070570.
+#[cfg(unix)]
+async fn assert_drive_not_connected(state: &Arc<AppState>) -> Result<()> {
+    let msd_guard = state.msd.read().await;
+    if let Some(controller) = msd_guard.as_ref() {
+        let msd_state = controller.state().await;
+        if msd_state.connected && msd_state.mode == crate::msd::types::MsdMode::Drive {
+            return Err(AppError::BadRequest(
+                "Virtual drive is connected to the USB host; disconnect it before modifying files"
+                    .to_string(),
+            ));
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[cfg(unix)]
+fn validate_drive_init_size(size_mb: u32, available_bytes: u64) -> Result<()> {
+    let requested_bytes = size_mb as u64 * MIB;
+    if size_mb < MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB {
+        return Err(AppError::BadRequest(format!(
+            "Virtual drive size must be at least {} MB",
+            MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB
+        )));
+    }
+    if requested_bytes > available_bytes {
+        return Err(AppError::BadRequest(format!(
+            "Virtual drive size cannot exceed available space on the MSD directory filesystem (available {} MB, requested {} MB)",
+            available_bytes / MIB,
+            size_mb
+        )));
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[cfg(unix)]
+fn is_unsupported_drive_filesystem(error: &str) -> bool {
+    error.contains("Filesystem error")
+        || error.contains("Image error")
+        || error.contains("Partition error")
+}
+
+#[cfg(unix)]
+fn unsupported_drive_filesystem_error(error: &str) -> AppError {
+    tracing::warn!(
+        error = %error,
+        "Virtual drive filesystem is not supported"
+    );
+    AppError::BadRequest("Unsupported drive filesystem".to_string())
+}
+
 /// MSD status response
 #[cfg(unix)]
 #[derive(Serialize)]
@@ -226,11 +283,24 @@ pub async fn msd_drive_info(State(state): State<Arc<AppState>>) -> Result<Json<D
     let drive = VentoyDrive::new(drive_path);
 
     if !drive.exists() {
+        // 404: drive image file does not exist at all — truly not initialized
         return Err(AppError::NotFound("Drive not initialized".to_string()));
     }
 
-    let info = drive.info().await?;
+    match drive.info().await {
-    Ok(Json(info))
+        Ok(info) => Ok(Json(info)),
+        Err(e) => {
+            let msg = e.to_string();
+            // Detect filesystem-level failures (unrecognized format, bad partition table, etc.)
+            // These mean the drive FILE exists but was formatted to an unsupported type
+            // (e.g. the controlled machine reformatted it as NTFS/exFAT).
+            // Return 400 so the frontend can distinguish this from 404 (file missing).
+            if is_unsupported_drive_filesystem(&msg) {
+                return Err(unsupported_drive_filesystem_error(&msg));
+            }
+            Err(e)
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 /// Initialize Ventoy drive
@@ -240,6 +310,16 @@ pub async fn msd_drive_init(
     Json(req): Json<DriveInitRequest>,
 ) -> Result<Json<DriveInfo>> {
     let config = state.config.get();
+    let msd_dir = config.msd.msd_dir_path();
+
+    let disk_space = get_disk_space(&msd_dir).map_err(|e| {
+        AppError::BadRequest(format!(
+            "Failed to read available space for the MSD directory filesystem: {}",
+            e
+        ))
+    })?;
+    validate_drive_init_size(req.size_mb, disk_space.available)?;
+
     let drive_path = config.msd.drive_path();
     let drive = VentoyDrive::new(drive_path);
 
@@ -283,12 +363,24 @@ pub async fn msd_drive_files(
     State(state): State<Arc<AppState>>,
     Query(params): Query<HashMap<String, String>>,
 ) -> Result<Json<Vec<DriveFile>>> {
+    // Block when connected: concurrent access corrupts the filesystem
+    assert_drive_not_connected(&state).await?;
+
     let config = state.config.get();
     let drive_path = config.msd.drive_path();
     let drive = VentoyDrive::new(drive_path);
 
     let dir_path = params.get("path").map(|s| s.as_str()).unwrap_or("/");
-    let files = drive.list_files(dir_path).await?;
+    let files = drive.list_files(dir_path).await.map_err(|e| {
+        // Provide a friendly message when the filesystem format is unrecognized
+        // (e.g. user formatted it as NTFS/exFAT from the controlled machine)
+        let msg = e.to_string();
+        if is_unsupported_drive_filesystem(&msg) {
+            unsupported_drive_filesystem_error(&msg)
+        } else {
+            e
+        }
+    })?;
     Ok(Json(files))
 }
 
@@ -299,6 +391,10 @@ pub async fn msd_drive_upload(
     Query(params): Query<HashMap<String, String>>,
     mut multipart: Multipart,
 ) -> Result<Json<LoginResponse>> {
+    // Block when connected: writing to image while USB host has it mounted
+    // causes filesystem corruption (Windows error 0x80070570)
+    assert_drive_not_connected(&state).await?;
+
     let config = state.config.get();
     let drive_path = config.msd.drive_path();
     let drive = VentoyDrive::new(drive_path);
@@ -345,6 +441,10 @@ pub async fn msd_drive_download(
     State(state): State<Arc<AppState>>,
     AxumPath(file_path): AxumPath<String>,
 ) -> Result<Response> {
+    // Block when connected: concurrent read from server side can cause
+    // filesystem inconsistency while USB host has the image mounted
+    assert_drive_not_connected(&state).await?;
+
     let config = state.config.get();
     let drive_path = config.msd.drive_path();
     let drive = VentoyDrive::new(drive_path);
@@ -380,6 +480,10 @@ pub async fn msd_drive_file_delete(
     State(state): State<Arc<AppState>>,
     AxumPath(file_path): AxumPath<String>,
 ) -> Result<Json<LoginResponse>> {
+    // Block when connected: deleting from image while USB host has it mounted
+    // causes filesystem corruption
+    assert_drive_not_connected(&state).await?;
+
     let config = state.config.get();
     let drive_path = config.msd.drive_path();
     let drive = VentoyDrive::new(drive_path);
@@ -398,6 +502,10 @@ pub async fn msd_drive_mkdir(
     State(state): State<Arc<AppState>>,
     AxumPath(dir_path): AxumPath<String>,
 ) -> Result<Json<LoginResponse>> {
+    // Block when connected: modifying image while USB host has it mounted
+    // causes filesystem corruption
+    assert_drive_not_connected(&state).await?;
+
     let config = state.config.get();
     let drive_path = config.msd.drive_path();
     let drive = VentoyDrive::new(drive_path);
@@ -409,3 +517,38 @@ pub async fn msd_drive_mkdir(
         message: Some(format!("Directory created: {}", dir_path)),
     }))
 }
+
+#[cfg(all(test, unix))]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn validate_drive_init_size_accepts_64mb() {
+        validate_drive_init_size(MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB, MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB as u64 * MIB).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn validate_drive_init_size_rejects_below_64mb() {
+        let err = validate_drive_init_size(MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB - 1, 1024 * MIB).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("at least 64 MB"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn validate_drive_init_size_rejects_available_space_overflow() {
+        let err = validate_drive_init_size(65, 64 * MIB).unwrap_err();
+        assert!(err.to_string().contains("cannot exceed available space"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn detects_unsupported_drive_filesystem_errors() {
+        assert!(is_unsupported_drive_filesystem(
+            "Internal error: Filesystem error: Invalid exFAT signature"
+        ));
+        assert!(is_unsupported_drive_filesystem(
+            "Internal error: Partition error: invalid partition table"
+        ));
+        assert!(!is_unsupported_drive_filesystem(
+            "IO error: permission denied"
+        ));
+    }
+}

web/src/api/index.ts

@@ -613,19 +613,32 @@ export const msdApi = {
       used: number
       free: number
       initialized: boolean
-    }>('/msd/drive'),
+    }>('/msd/drive', {}, { toastOnError: false }),
 
   initDrive: (sizeMb?: number) =>
-    request<{ path: string; size_mb: number }>('/msd/drive/init', {
+    request<{
-      method: 'POST',
+      size: number
-      body: JSON.stringify({ size_mb: sizeMb }),
+      used: number
-    }),
+      free: number
+      initialized: boolean
+    }>(
+      '/msd/drive/init',
+      {
+        method: 'POST',
+        body: JSON.stringify({ size_mb: sizeMb }),
+      },
+      { toastOnError: false },
+    ),
 
   deleteDrive: () =>
     request<{ success: boolean }>('/msd/drive', { method: 'DELETE' }),
 
   listDriveFiles: (path = '/') =>
-    request<DriveFile[]>(`/msd/drive/files?path=${encodeURIComponent(path)}`),
+    request<DriveFile[]>(
+      `/msd/drive/files?path=${encodeURIComponent(path)}`,
+      {},
+      { toastOnError: false },
+    ),
 
   uploadDriveFile: async (file: File, targetPath = '/', onProgress?: (progress: number) => void) => {
     const formData = new FormData()

web/src/components/MsdDialog.vue

@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ import { useI18n } from 'vue-i18n'
 import { toast } from 'vue-sonner'
 import { useSystemStore } from '@/stores/system'
 import { msdApi, type MsdImage, type DriveFile } from '@/api'
+import { ApiError } from '@/api/request'
 import { useWebSocket } from '@/composables/useWebSocket'
 import {
   Dialog,
@@ -25,8 +26,8 @@ import { Tabs, TabsContent, TabsList, TabsTrigger } from '@/components/ui/tabs'
 import { Progress } from '@/components/ui/progress'
 import { Input } from '@/components/ui/input'
 import { Label } from '@/components/ui/label'
-import { RadioGroup, RadioGroupItem } from '@/components/ui/radio-group'
 import { ToggleGroup, ToggleGroupItem } from '@/components/ui/toggle-group'
+import { Slider } from '@/components/ui/slider'
 import { Separator } from '@/components/ui/separator'
 import {
   HardDrive,
@@ -45,6 +46,7 @@ import {
   Globe,
   X,
   AlertCircle,
+  Info,
 } from 'lucide-vue-next'
 import HelpTooltip from '@/components/HelpTooltip.vue'
 
@@ -68,7 +70,8 @@ const uploadProgress = ref(0)
 const uploading = ref(false)
 
 const mountMode = ref<'cdrom' | 'flash'>('flash')
-const accessMode = ref<'readonly' | 'readwrite'>('readonly')
+// Default to readwrite for flash mode; cdrom forces readonly anyway
+const accessMode = ref<'readonly' | 'readwrite'>('readwrite')
 
 const cdromMode = computed(() => mountMode.value === 'cdrom')
 const readOnly = computed(() => accessMode.value === 'readonly')
@@ -84,6 +87,7 @@ const driveInfo = ref<{ size: number; used: number; free: number; initialized: b
 const driveInitialized = ref(false)
 const uploadingFile = ref(false)
 const fileUploadProgress = ref(0)
+const driveError = ref<string | null>(null) // filesystem error (e.g. unsupported format)
 
 const showDeleteDialog = ref(false)
 const deleteTarget = ref<{ type: 'image' | 'file'; id: string; name: string } | null>(null)
@@ -92,8 +96,42 @@ const newFolderName = ref('')
 
 const showDriveInitDialog = ref(false)
 const showDeleteDriveDialog = ref(false)
-const selectedDriveSize = ref(256) // Default 256MB
+
-const customDriveSize = ref<number | undefined>(undefined)
+const MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB = 64
+const DEFAULT_DRIVE_SIZE_MB = 256
+const BYTES_PER_MB = 1024 * 1024
+
+const driveSizeMB = ref(DEFAULT_DRIVE_SIZE_MB)
+const availableDriveSizeMB = computed(() => {
+  if (!systemStore.diskSpace) return null
+  return Math.floor(systemStore.diskSpace.available / BYTES_PER_MB)
+})
+const canInitializeDrive = computed(() => {
+  return availableDriveSizeMB.value !== null && availableDriveSizeMB.value >= MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB
+})
+const sliderMaxDriveSizeMB = computed(() => {
+  return Math.max(MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB, availableDriveSizeMB.value ?? MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB)
+})
+
+function normalizeDriveSize(value: number) {
+  const max = availableDriveSizeMB.value
+  if (max === null || max < MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB) return MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB
+  const next = Number.isFinite(value) ? Math.trunc(value) : DEFAULT_DRIVE_SIZE_MB
+  return Math.max(MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB, Math.min(next, max))
+}
+
+function updateDriveSizeFromSlider(value: number[] | undefined) {
+  driveSizeMB.value = normalizeDriveSize(value?.[0] ?? MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB)
+}
+
+const finalDriveSize = computed(() => {
+  return normalizeDriveSize(driveSizeMB.value)
+})
+
+watch(availableDriveSizeMB, () => {
+  driveSizeMB.value = finalDriveSize.value
+})
+
 const initializingDrive = ref(false)
 const deletingDrive = ref(false)
 
@@ -114,15 +152,10 @@ const TWO_POINT_TWO_GB = 2.2 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024
 
 const msdConnected = computed(() => systemStore.msd?.connected ?? false)
 const msdMode = computed(() => systemStore.msd?.mode ?? 'none')
+// Drive is currently mounted on the target machine via USB — file ops are blocked
+const driveConnectedToTarget = computed(() => msdConnected.value && msdMode.value === 'drive')
+
 
-const connectedImageName = computed(() => {
-  if (!msdConnected.value) return null
-  if (msdMode.value === 'drive') return t('msd.drive')
-  const imageId = systemStore.msd?.imageId
-  if (!imageId) return null
-  const image = images.value.find(i => i.id === imageId)
-  return image?.name ?? null
-})
 
 const operationInProgress = computed(() => {
   return connecting.value ||
@@ -155,7 +188,21 @@ watch(() => props.open, async (isOpen) => {
   }
 })
 
+watch(driveConnectedToTarget, async (isConnected, wasConnected) => {
+  if (!wasConnected || isConnected || !props.open) return
+  await refreshDriveBrowser()
+})
+
+async function refreshDiskSpace() {
+  try {
+    await systemStore.fetchSystemInfo()
+  } catch (e) {
+    console.error('Failed to refresh disk space:', e)
+  }
+}
+
 async function loadData() {
+  await refreshDiskSpace()
   await systemStore.fetchMsdState()
   await loadImages()
   await loadDriveInfo()
@@ -188,6 +235,7 @@ async function handleImageUpload(e: Event) {
       uploadProgress.value = progress
     })
     images.value.push(image)
+    await refreshDiskSpace()
   } catch (e) {
     console.error('Failed to upload image:', e)
   } finally {
@@ -255,17 +303,27 @@ function confirmDelete(type: 'image' | 'file', id: string, name: string) {
 async function executeDelete() {
   if (!deleteTarget.value || deleting.value) return
 
+  // Guard: never delete drive files while connected to target
+  if (deleteTarget.value.type === 'file' && driveConnectedToTarget.value) {
+    toast.error(t('msd.driveConnectedBlocked'))
+    showDeleteDialog.value = false
+    deleteTarget.value = null
+    return
+  }
+
   deleting.value = true
   try {
     if (deleteTarget.value.type === 'image') {
       await msdApi.deleteImage(deleteTarget.value.id)
       images.value = images.value.filter(i => i.id !== deleteTarget.value!.id)
+      await refreshDiskSpace()
     } else {
       await msdApi.deleteDriveFile(deleteTarget.value.id)
       await loadDriveFiles()
     }
-  } catch (e) {
+  } catch (e: any) {
     console.error('Failed to delete:', e)
+    toast.error(t('common.error'), { description: e?.message })
   } finally {
     showDeleteDialog.value = false
     deleteTarget.value = null
@@ -274,42 +332,57 @@ async function executeDelete() {
 }
 
 async function loadDriveInfo() {
+  driveError.value = null
   try {
     driveInfo.value = await msdApi.driveInfo()
     driveInitialized.value = true
-  } catch {
+  } catch (e: any) {
-    driveInitialized.value = false
+    if (e instanceof ApiError) {
+      if (e.status === 404) {
+        // Drive image file does not exist — truly not initialized
+        driveInitialized.value = false
+        driveInfo.value = null
+      } else {
+        // Drive file exists but unreadable (e.g. wrong filesystem format after
+        // being reformatted by the controlled machine). Show the drive tab with
+        // an error banner instead of the misleading "Initialize Drive" button.
+        driveInitialized.value = true
+        driveError.value = e.message
+        driveInfo.value = null
+      }
+    } else {
+      driveInitialized.value = false
+      driveInfo.value = null
+    }
+    console.error('Failed to load drive info:', e)
   }
 }
 
-const driveSizeOptions = computed(() => [
+async function initializeDrive() {
-  { value: 64, label: '64 MB' },
+  await refreshDiskSpace()
-  { value: 128, label: '128 MB' },
+  driveSizeMB.value = finalDriveSize.value
-  { value: 256, label: `256 MB (${t('common.recommended')})`, recommended: true },
-  { value: 512, label: '512 MB' },
-  { value: 1024, label: '1 GB' },
-  { value: 2048, label: '2 GB' },
-  { value: 4096, label: '4 GB' },
-  { value: 8192, label: '8 GB' },
-])
-
-const finalDriveSize = computed(() => {
-  return customDriveSize.value || selectedDriveSize.value
-})
-
-function initializeDrive() {
   showDriveInitDialog.value = true
 }
 
 async function createDrive() {
+  await refreshDiskSpace()
+  driveSizeMB.value = finalDriveSize.value
+  if (!canInitializeDrive.value) {
+    toast.error(t('msd.driveSpaceUnavailable'))
+    return
+  }
+
   initializingDrive.value = true
   try {
-    await msdApi.initDrive(finalDriveSize.value)
+    const sizeMb = finalDriveSize.value
+    await msdApi.initDrive(sizeMb)
     await loadDriveInfo()
     await loadDriveFiles()
+    await refreshDiskSpace()
     showDriveInitDialog.value = false
   } catch (e) {
     console.error('Failed to initialize drive:', e)
+    toast.error(t('msd.driveCreateFailed'))
   } finally {
     initializingDrive.value = false
   }
@@ -324,6 +397,7 @@ async function deleteDrive() {
     driveFiles.value = []
     currentPath.value = '/'
     showDeleteDriveDialog.value = false
+    await refreshDiskSpace()
   } catch (e) {
     console.error('Failed to delete drive:', e)
   } finally {
@@ -332,16 +406,36 @@ async function deleteDrive() {
 }
 
 async function loadDriveFiles() {
+  // Do not read image file while it is mounted on the target machine:
+  // concurrent access causes filesystem corruption (Windows error 0x80070570)
+  if (driveConnectedToTarget.value) {
+    driveFiles.value = []
+    return
+  }
   loadingDrive.value = true
+  driveError.value = null
   try {
     driveFiles.value = await msdApi.listDriveFiles(currentPath.value)
-  } catch (e) {
+  } catch (e: any) {
     console.error('Failed to load drive files:', e)
+    // Surface the error — could be unsupported filesystem format
+    driveError.value = e?.message ?? String(e)
+    driveFiles.value = []
   } finally {
     loadingDrive.value = false
   }
 }
 
+async function refreshDriveBrowser() {
+  await loadDriveInfo()
+  if (driveInitialized.value) {
+    await loadDriveFiles()
+  } else {
+    driveFiles.value = []
+  }
+  await refreshDiskSpace()
+}
+
 function navigateTo(path: string) {
   currentPath.value = path
   loadDriveFiles()
@@ -359,6 +453,13 @@ async function handleFileUpload(e: Event) {
   const file = input.files?.[0]
   if (!file) return
 
+  // Guard: never upload while drive is connected to target
+  if (driveConnectedToTarget.value) {
+    toast.error(t('msd.driveConnectedBlocked'))
+    input.value = ''
+    return
+  }
+
   uploadingFile.value = true
   fileUploadProgress.value = 0
 
@@ -367,8 +468,9 @@ async function handleFileUpload(e: Event) {
       fileUploadProgress.value = progress
     })
     await loadDriveFiles()
-  } catch (e) {
+  } catch (e: any) {
     console.error('Failed to upload file:', e)
+    toast.error(t('msd.uploadFailed'), { description: e?.message })
   } finally {
     uploadingFile.value = false
     fileUploadProgress.value = 0
@@ -379,14 +481,23 @@ async function handleFileUpload(e: Event) {
 async function createFolder() {
   if (!newFolderName.value.trim()) return
 
+  // Guard: never create folders while drive is connected to target
+  if (driveConnectedToTarget.value) {
+    toast.error(t('msd.driveConnectedBlocked'))
+    showNewFolderDialog.value = false
+    newFolderName.value = ''
+    return
+  }
+
   try {
     const path = currentPath.value === '/'
       ? '/' + newFolderName.value
       : currentPath.value + '/' + newFolderName.value
     await msdApi.createDirectory(path)
     await loadDriveFiles()
-  } catch (e) {
+  } catch (e: any) {
     console.error('Failed to create folder:', e)
+    toast.error(t('common.error'), { description: e?.message })
   } finally {
     showNewFolderDialog.value = false
     newFolderName.value = ''
@@ -494,16 +605,8 @@ onUnmounted(() => {
             </span>
             {{ msdConnected ? t('common.connected') : t('common.disconnected') }}
           </span>
-          <template v-if="msdConnected && connectedImageName">
+          <template v-if="msdConnected">
             <span class="text-muted-foreground">·</span>
-            <Tooltip>
-              <TooltipTrigger as-child>
-                <span class="truncate max-w-[180px] cursor-help">{{ connectedImageName }}</span>
-              </TooltipTrigger>
-              <TooltipContent>
-                <p>{{ connectedImageName }}</p>
-              </TooltipContent>
-            </Tooltip>
             <Badge variant="secondary" class="text-xs">{{ msdMode === 'drive' ? t('msd.drive') : t('msd.images') }}</Badge>
             <Button
               variant="outline"
@@ -712,17 +815,53 @@ onUnmounted(() => {
 
             <template v-else>
               <!-- Drive Info Card -->
-              <div class="shrink-0 p-3 rounded-lg border space-y-3" :class="msdConnected && msdMode === 'drive' ? 'border-primary bg-primary/5' : 'bg-muted/50'">
+              <div
+                class="shrink-0 p-3 rounded-lg border space-y-3"
+                :class="msdConnected && msdMode === 'drive'
+                  ? 'border-primary bg-primary/5'
+                  : driveError
+                    ? 'border-destructive/40 bg-destructive/5'
+                    : 'bg-muted/50'"
+              >
                 <div class="flex items-center justify-between">
                   <div class="flex items-center gap-2">
                     <HardDrive class="h-4 w-4 text-muted-foreground" />
                     <span class="text-sm font-medium">{{ t('msd.drive') }}</span>
-                    <Badge variant="outline" class="text-xs">
+                    <!-- Show size badge only when info is available -->
+                    <Badge v-if="driveInfo" variant="outline" class="text-xs">
                       {{ Math.round((driveInfo?.size || 0) / 1024 / 1024) }} MB
                     </Badge>
+                    <!-- Show unreadable badge when format is wrong -->
+                    <template v-else-if="driveError">
+                      <Badge variant="outline" class="text-xs border-destructive/50 text-destructive">
+                        {{ t('msd.driveUnreadable') }}
+                      </Badge>
+                      <Tooltip>
+                        <TooltipTrigger as-child>
+                          <span class="inline-flex h-4 w-4 items-center justify-center text-muted-foreground hover:text-foreground">
+                            <Info class="h-3.5 w-3.5" />
+                          </span>
+                        </TooltipTrigger>
+                        <TooltipContent>
+                          <p>{{ t('msd.driveUnreadableTooltip') }}</p>
+                        </TooltipContent>
+                      </Tooltip>
+                    </template>
                   </div>
                   <div class="flex items-center gap-1.5">
-                    <template v-if="msdConnected && msdMode === 'drive'">
+                    <!-- When drive format is unrecognized, only offer re-initialization -->
+                    <template v-if="driveError && !msdConnected">
+                      <Button
+                        variant="outline"
+                        size="sm"
+                        class="h-7 text-xs"
+                        :disabled="operationInProgress"
+                        @click="initializeDrive"
+                      >
+                        {{ t('msd.reinitializeDrive') }}
+                      </Button>
+                    </template>
+                    <template v-else-if="msdConnected && msdMode === 'drive'">
                       <Badge variant="default" class="text-xs h-7 px-2">
                         <span class="relative flex h-1.5 w-1.5 mr-1.5">
                           <span class="animate-ping absolute inline-flex h-full w-full rounded-full bg-white opacity-75"></span>
@@ -755,10 +894,9 @@ onUnmounted(() => {
                     </Button>
                   </div>
                 </div>
-                <!-- Storage usage bar -->
+                <!-- Storage usage bar — hidden when format is unrecognized -->
-                <div class="space-y-1.5">
+                <div v-if="driveInfo" class="space-y-1.5">
                   <Progress
-                    v-if="driveInfo"
                     :model-value="driveInfo.size > 0 ? (driveInfo.used / driveInfo.size) * 100 : 0"
                     class="h-2"
                   />
@@ -769,8 +907,10 @@ onUnmounted(() => {
                 </div>
               </div>
 
+
               <!-- File Browser -->
               <div class="flex-1 min-h-0 flex flex-col space-y-2">
+
                 <!-- Toolbar -->
                 <div class="shrink-0 flex items-center justify-between gap-2">
                   <div class="flex items-center gap-1 min-w-0 flex-1">
@@ -779,6 +919,7 @@ onUnmounted(() => {
                       variant="ghost"
                       size="icon"
                       class="h-7 w-7 shrink-0"
+                      :disabled="driveConnectedToTarget"
                       @click="navigateUp"
                     >
                       <ArrowLeft class="h-3.5 w-3.5" />
@@ -788,25 +929,63 @@ onUnmounted(() => {
                         <ChevronRight v-if="index > 0" class="h-3 w-3 text-muted-foreground mx-0.5 shrink-0" />
                         <button
                           class="hover:text-primary transition-colors truncate"
-                          :class="index === breadcrumbs.length - 1 ? 'font-medium' : 'text-muted-foreground'"
+                          :class="[
-                          @click="navigateTo(crumb.path)"
+                            index === breadcrumbs.length - 1 ? 'font-medium' : 'text-muted-foreground',
+                            driveConnectedToTarget ? 'cursor-not-allowed opacity-50' : ''
+                          ]"
+                          :disabled="driveConnectedToTarget"
+                          @click="!driveConnectedToTarget && navigateTo(crumb.path)"
                         >
                           {{ crumb.name }}
                         </button>
                       </template>
                     </nav>
                   </div>
-                  <div class="shrink-0 flex items-center gap-1 shrink-0">
+                  <div class="shrink-0 flex items-center gap-1">
-                    <label>
+                    <Tooltip>
-                      <input type="file" class="hidden" :disabled="uploadingFile" @change="handleFileUpload" />
+                      <TooltipTrigger as-child>
-                      <Button variant="ghost" size="icon" as="span" class="h-7 w-7 cursor-pointer">
+                        <label>
-                        <Upload class="h-3.5 w-3.5" />
+                          <!-- ③ Upload disabled when drive connected to target -->
-                      </Button>
+                          <input type="file" class="hidden" :disabled="uploadingFile || driveConnectedToTarget" @change="handleFileUpload" />
-                    </label>
+                          <Button
-                    <Button variant="ghost" size="icon" class="h-7 w-7" @click="showNewFolderDialog = true">
+                            variant="ghost"
-                      <FolderPlus class="h-3.5 w-3.5" />
+                            size="icon"
-                    </Button>
+                            as="span"
-                    <Button variant="ghost" size="icon" class="h-7 w-7" @click="loadDriveFiles">
+                            class="h-7 w-7"
+                            :class="driveConnectedToTarget ? 'cursor-not-allowed opacity-40' : 'cursor-pointer'"
+                          >
+                            <Upload class="h-3.5 w-3.5" />
+                          </Button>
+                        </label>
+                      </TooltipTrigger>
+                      <TooltipContent v-if="driveConnectedToTarget">
+                        <p>{{ t('msd.driveConnectedBlocked') }}</p>
+                      </TooltipContent>
+                    </Tooltip>
+                    <Tooltip>
+                      <TooltipTrigger as-child>
+                        <!-- ③ New folder disabled when drive connected to target -->
+                        <Button
+                          variant="ghost"
+                          size="icon"
+                          class="h-7 w-7"
+                          :disabled="driveConnectedToTarget"
+                          @click="showNewFolderDialog = true"
+                        >
+                          <FolderPlus class="h-3.5 w-3.5" />
+                        </Button>
+                      </TooltipTrigger>
+                      <TooltipContent v-if="driveConnectedToTarget">
+                        <p>{{ t('msd.driveConnectedBlocked') }}</p>
+                      </TooltipContent>
+                    </Tooltip>
+                    <Button
+                      variant="ghost"
+                      size="icon"
+                      class="h-7 w-7"
+                      :disabled="driveConnectedToTarget"
+                      @click="loadDriveFiles"
+                    >
                       <RefreshCw class="h-3.5 w-3.5" :class="{ 'animate-spin': loadingDrive }" />
                     </Button>
                   </div>
@@ -815,10 +994,21 @@ onUnmounted(() => {
                 <Progress v-if="uploadingFile" :model-value="fileUploadProgress" class="h-1 shrink-0" />
 
                 <!-- File List -->
-                <div v-if="driveFiles.length === 0" class="shrink-0 text-center py-6 text-muted-foreground text-sm">
+                <div
+                  v-if="driveFiles.length === 0 && !driveConnectedToTarget && !driveError"
+                  class="shrink-0 text-center py-6 text-muted-foreground text-sm"
+                >
                   {{ t('msd.emptyFolder') }}
                 </div>
 
+                <!-- Connected placeholder: file list hidden while drive mounted on target -->
+                <div
+                  v-else-if="driveConnectedToTarget"
+                  class="shrink-0 text-center py-6 text-muted-foreground text-sm"
+                >
+                  {{ t('msd.driveConnectedFilesHidden') }}
+                </div>
+
                 <div v-else class="flex-1 min-h-0 overflow-y-auto pr-2 custom-scrollbar">
                   <div class="space-y-1">
                     <div
@@ -858,10 +1048,12 @@ onUnmounted(() => {
                         >
                           <Download class="h-3.5 w-3.5" />
                         </Button>
+                        <!-- ③ Delete disabled when drive connected to target -->
                         <Button
                           variant="ghost"
                           size="icon"
                           class="h-7 w-7 text-destructive"
+                          :disabled="driveConnectedToTarget"
                           @click="confirmDelete('file', file.path, file.name)"
                         >
                           <Trash2 class="h-3.5 w-3.5" />
@@ -929,54 +1121,55 @@ onUnmounted(() => {
         <DialogDescription>{{ t('msd.selectDriveSize') }}</DialogDescription>
       </DialogHeader>
 
-      <div class="space-y-4">
+      <div class="space-y-6 py-4">
-        <!-- Preset size selection -->
+        <div class="space-y-4">
-        <div class="space-y-2">
+          <div class="flex items-center justify-between">
-          <Label>{{ t('msd.driveSize') }}</Label>
+            <Label>{{ t('msd.driveSize') }}</Label>
-          <RadioGroup v-model="selectedDriveSize">
+            <div class="flex items-center gap-2">
-            <div v-for="size in driveSizeOptions" :key="size.value" class="flex items-center space-x-2">
+              <Input
-              <RadioGroupItem :id="`size-${size.value}`" :value="size.value" />
+                v-model.number="driveSizeMB"
-              <Label :for="`size-${size.value}`" class="font-normal cursor-pointer flex-1">
+                type="number"
-                {{ size.label }}
+                :min="MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB"
-              </Label>
+                :max="sliderMaxDriveSizeMB"
+                class="w-24 text-right"
+                :disabled="!canInitializeDrive || initializingDrive"
+                @blur="driveSizeMB = finalDriveSize"
+              />
+              <span class="text-sm text-muted-foreground">MB</span>
             </div>
-          </RadioGroup>
-        </div>
-
-        <!-- Custom size -->
-        <div class="space-y-2">
-          <Label for="custom-size">{{ t('msd.customSize') }}</Label>
-          <div class="flex items-center gap-2">
-            <Input
-              id="custom-size"
-              v-model.number="customDriveSize"
-              type="number"
-              :min="64"
-              :max="32768"
-              placeholder="256"
-              class="flex-1"
-            />
-            <span class="text-sm text-muted-foreground">MB</span>
           </div>
-          <p class="text-xs text-muted-foreground">
-            {{ t('msd.driveSizeHint') }}
-          </p>
-        </div>
 
-        <!-- Final size display -->
+          <Slider
-        <div class="p-3 rounded-lg bg-muted/50">
+            :model-value="[driveSizeMB]"
-          <div class="flex items-center justify-between text-sm">
+            @update:model-value="updateDriveSizeFromSlider"
-            <span class="text-muted-foreground">{{ t('msd.selectedSize') }}:</span>
+            :min="MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB"
-            <span class="font-medium">{{ finalDriveSize }} MB</span>
+            :max="sliderMaxDriveSizeMB"
+            :step="1"
+            :disabled="!canInitializeDrive || initializingDrive"
+            class="w-full"
+          />
+
+          <div class="flex justify-between text-xs text-muted-foreground">
+            <span>{{ MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB }} MB</span>
+            <span>
+              {{ availableDriveSizeMB === null ? t('msd.driveSpaceUnknown') : formatBytes((availableDriveSizeMB || 0) * BYTES_PER_MB) }}
+            </span>
           </div>
         </div>
+
+        <p v-if="availableDriveSizeMB === null" class="text-xs text-destructive">
+          {{ t('msd.driveSpaceUnknown') }}
+        </p>
+        <p v-else-if="availableDriveSizeMB < MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB" class="text-xs text-destructive">
+          {{ t('msd.driveSpaceTooSmall', { min: MIN_DRIVE_SIZE_MB }) }}
+        </p>
       </div>
 
       <DialogFooter>
         <Button variant="outline" @click="showDriveInitDialog = false" :disabled="initializingDrive">
           {{ t('common.cancel') }}
         </Button>
-        <Button @click="createDrive" :disabled="initializingDrive">
+        <Button @click="createDrive" :disabled="initializingDrive || !canInitializeDrive">
           <span v-if="initializingDrive">{{ t('common.creating') }}...</span>
           <span v-else>{{ t('common.create') }}</span>
         </Button>

web/src/i18n/en-US.ts

@@ -478,12 +478,20 @@ export default {
     driveConnected: 'Virtual USB drive connected',
     imageConnected: 'Image {name} connected',
     selectDriveSize: 'Select virtual drive size',
-    selectedSize: 'Selected size',
     customSize: 'Custom size',
-    driveSizeHint: 'Custom size overrides selection above (64MB - 32GB)',
+    driveSpaceUnknown: 'Unable to read available space for the MSD directory filesystem',
+    driveSpaceUnavailable: 'Not enough space on the MSD directory filesystem to create a virtual drive',
+    driveSpaceTooSmall: 'Available space is less than {min} MB; cannot create a virtual drive',
+    driveCreateFailed: 'Failed to create virtual drive. Check available space for the MSD directory',
     driveCreated: 'Virtual drive created ({size} MB)',
     fileDeleted: 'File deleted',
     imageDeleted: 'Image deleted',
+    driveConnectedBlocked: 'Disconnect the drive before editing files',
+    driveConnectedFilesHidden: 'Drive is connected to target machine — file list unavailable',
+    uploadFailed: 'File upload failed',
+    driveUnreadable: 'Format unsupported',
+    driveUnreadableTooltip: 'Unable to parse the exFAT filesystem. It may have been formatted with an unsupported format.',
+    reinitializeDrive: 'Re-initialize',
   },
   settings: {
     title: 'Settings',

web/src/i18n/zh-CN.ts

@@ -477,12 +477,20 @@ export default {
     driveConnected: '虚拟U盘已连接',
     imageConnected: '镜像 {name} 已连接',
     selectDriveSize: '选择虚拟驱动器大小',
-    selectedSize: '选定大小',
     customSize: '自定义大小',
-    driveSizeHint: '输入自定义大小会覆盖上方选择 (64MB - 32GB)',
+    driveSpaceUnknown: '无法读取 MSD 目录所在储存空间的剩余可用空间',
+    driveSpaceUnavailable: 'MSD 目录所在储存空间不足，无法创建虚拟U盘',
+    driveSpaceTooSmall: '剩余可用空间不足 {min} MB，无法创建虚拟U盘',
+    driveCreateFailed: '虚拟U盘创建失败，请检查 MSD 目录剩余空间',
     driveCreated: '虚拟驱动器已创建 ({size} MB)',
     fileDeleted: '文件已删除',
     imageDeleted: '镜像已删除',
+    driveConnectedBlocked: '请先断开连接，再操作文件',
+    driveConnectedFilesHidden: '已连接到被控机，文件列表暂不可用',
+    uploadFailed: '文件上传失败',
+    driveUnreadable: '格式不支持',
+    driveUnreadableTooltip: '无法解析 exFAT 文件系统，可能已被格式化为不支持的格式。',
+    reinitializeDrive: '重新初始化',
   },
   settings: {
     title: '系统设置',